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Phylogenetic Tree
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Archaebacteria & Eubacteria
Archaebacteria: the oldest living organisms on Earth
Three phyla - methanogens, extreme halophiles, thermoacidophiles
Phylum: Proteobacteria
Three phyla - methanogens, extreme halophiles, thermoacidophiles
-Body plan – prokaryotic and unicellular
-Found in very harsh, extreme conditions (bottom of sea, volcanic vents)
-the very beginning of evolution
-only survivor of early Earth’s atmosphere that had little oxygen
-only survivor of early Earth’s atmosphere that had little oxygen
-no previous event led to the evolution of the kingdom
-Metabolism – mostly autotrophic
-capable of self-nourishing by converting inorganic materials to nutrients
-capable of self-nourishing by converting inorganic materials to nutrients
-Digestion – doesn't have a digestive system
-Circulation – no heart
-Respiration – obtain energy from carbon dioxide, oxygen, and sun
-Nervous – no brain
-Reproduction – asexual
-binary fission – bacterial DNA replicates, pinches off at center, divides into two- each with a copy of the DNA
-quick, some species divide once every 20 minutes
Phylum: Methanogen
-Live in environments without oxygen
-swamps, deep-sea waters, sewage facilities, stomachs of cows (hence, why they produce methane as a waste product)
-Obtain energy from carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas
-Example: Methanosarcina barkeri
-“Salt loving”
-Live in areas with high salt concentration
-Dead Sea , Great Salt Lake
-Cannot tolerate unsalty environments
-Bacteriorhodopsin – sunlight as a source of photosynthetic energy
Example: Halobacterium- Halococcus
Phylum: Extreme Thermoacidophiles
-“Heat and acid loving”
-Live in hot, acidic waters
-sulfur springs or deep-sea thermal vents
-temps of 160 degrees Fahrenheit or higher
-pH levels of 1 or 2 (concentrated sulfuric acid)
-Example: Picrophilus torridus
Eubacteria: the common bacteria
More complex and common than Archaebacteria
Four phyla - cyanobacteria, spirochetes, proteobacteria, and gram-positive bacteria
-Found everywhere around us (body, food, etc.)
-Classification – gram staining
-Classification – gram staining
-using 4 liquids: crystal violet, iodine, safranin, alcohol wash
-purple (crystal violet): gram-positive – thick layer of peptidoglycan, but susceptible to antibiotics
-pink (safranin): gram-negative – thick lipid bilayer makes it selectively permeable and not as susceptible to antibiotics
-3 general shapes: bacilli, cocci, and spirilla
-bacilli – oblong and thick
-cocci – round
-spirilla - spiral
-Body Plan – prokaryotic, mostly unicellular
-Divergent event - when little amounts of oxygen started appearing in the Earth's atmosphere, eubacteria started evolving from the extreme archaebacteria
-Some of these bacteria used the oxygen that the archaebacteria expelled as a waste product
-Divergent event - when little amounts of oxygen started appearing in the Earth's atmosphere, eubacteria started evolving from the extreme archaebacteria
-Some of these bacteria used the oxygen that the archaebacteria expelled as a waste product
-Metabolism – autotrophic and heterotrophic, lithotrophic (inorganic electron donors), organotrophic (organic compounds as electron donors), chemotrophic (energy conservation)
-Example Autotroph: phototrophic cyanobacteria
-Example Autotroph: phototrophic cyanobacteria
-Example Heterotroph: pseudomona
-Digestion – doesn’t have a digestive system
-Circulation – no heart
-Respiration – use oxygen and chemicals to obtain energy
-Nervous system – no brain
-Reproduction – asexual
-binary fission, formation of identical bacterial cells
Phylum: Cyanobacteria
-Use sun’s energy to make food
-Give off oxygen as byproduct
-allow aerobic organisms to survive
-Found in water, once thought to be blue-green algae
-Certain cyanobacteria grow in chains that sometimes form heterocysts
-heterocyst - specialized cells that contain enzymes that fix atmospheric nitrogen
-Causes eutrophication - sudden increase of cyanobacteria due to a high availability of nutrients
-Example: Prochlorococcus
Phylum: Spirochetes
-Gram-negative, spiral-shaped, and heterotrophic
-Some live with oxygen (aerobic), others do not (anaerobic)
-Some are parasitic, some are free-living
-Treponema pallidum causes syphilis
-Example: Borrelia burgdorferi (causes Lyme Disease)
Phylum: Gram-Positive Bacteria
-Produces yogurt by growing and fermenting in milk (produces lactic acid)
-Produces antibiotics
-Found in oral cavity and intestinal tract where they retard the growth of disease-causing bacteria
-Lactobacilli releases acid to stop tooth decay
-Example: Streptococcus (causes Strep throat)
-Largest phylum - divided into three groups
1. Enteric bacteria
-gram-negative, heterotrophic bacteria found in the intestinal tracts of animals
-aerobic or anaerobic
-produces vitamins and enzymes that help break down food
Example: Escherichia coli - produces vitamin K and assists enzymes in breaking down food
2. Chemoautotrophs
-gram-negative bacteria that extracts energy and breaks down minerals
3. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
-fix nitrogen, usually found in symbiotic relation with the roots of plants
Protista
Protista: "the very first"
Eukaryotic - have a nucleus
Eukaryotic - have a nucleus
-Body Plan -mostly unicellular, some multicellular (algae)
-Divergent event -
-80 different groups have long, independent evolutionay histories that go back to more than 2 billion years ago
-Some show that they are derived from complex bacterial ancestors
-Many of the groups are not closely related to one another at all
-Start and foundation of kingdoms fungi, plantae, and animalia
-Metabolism- autotrophic and heterotrophic
-Heterotrophic – flagellates (animal-like, ingest food, mobile)
-Autotrophic – algae (green, red, brown, golden)
-Digestion- intracellular
-No consistent digestive tract
-Some protists like paramecium use cilia to move particles from its mouth pore and into its gullet
-Food pinches off into vacuoles that move through the cytoplasm
-Waste comes out through the anal pore
-Food pinches off into vacuoles that move through the cytoplasm
-Waste comes out through the anal pore
-Amoeba digest through endocytosis and produce waste through exocytosis
-Photosynthesis in algae
-Circulation- no heart
-Respiration- no lungs, but oxygen and materials are transported through protists through diffusion
-Nervous- no brain
-Reproduction – asexual, sometimes sexual
-Binary fission
-Conjugation, where the only diploid cell is the zygote
-undergoes meiosis
-All other cells are formed by mitosis
-undergoes meiosis
-All other cells are formed by mitosis
Examples-
-Plasmodium (causes malaria)
-Macrocystis (giant kelp)
-one of most complex protists
-one of most complex protists
Phylum: Ciliaphora
-Have tiny hair-like structures called cilia that beat back and forth
-Enables the protist to move through aquatic environment & capture food
-Ten pairs of microtubules
-9+2 config, nine pairs form circle, tenth pair in circle
-9+2 config, nine pairs form circle, tenth pair in circle
-Animal-like
Example- Paramecium
Phylum: Euglenophyta
-Live in water
-Have two flagella for movement
-Chloroplasts for photosynthesis
-Heterotrophs if kept in dark
-Heterotrophs if kept in dark
-Eyespot for sensing light and dark
-Pellicle - like a cell wall, helps maintain shape
-Plant-like
Example - Euglena
Phylum: Rhodophyta
-Red algae
-Presence of the pigment phycoerythrin, reflects red light and absorbs blue
-Different concentrations of the pigment
-Important in the formation of tropical reefs
-Plant-like
Example - Nori (sushi seaweed) contains a high vitamin and protein content
Fungi
Fungi: in air, in water, on land, in soil, and on plants and animals... everywhere!
40x
-Determine the types of plants and eventually the types of animals in an area
-Some are microscopic, others are extremely large
-Million plus species of fungi, only identified 5% of all fungi
Body plan-
-Almost entirely multicellular (composed of filaments called hyphae), some have two nuclei (multinucleate)
-Rarely unicellular
Example multicellular: mushrooms
Example unicellular: yeast (Saccharomyces cerviseae)
Divergent event-
-1 billion years ago
-Fungal cell wall composed of glucans and chitin – the only organisms that combine these two molecules in their cell walls
-More complex than protists, but protists were the start of fungi development
-Most fungi share a common ancestor with kingdom Animalia, not Plantae (surprisingly)
Metabolism-
-Heterotrophic – absorption
-saprophytic – secrete enzymes to break down dead organic matter
-parasitic – obtain nutrients from living hosts
Digestion-
-Extracellular – secrete enzymes and absorb nutrients provided
Circulation - no heart
Respiration-
-yeast requires anaerobic respiration
-use glucose and oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy
Nervous - no brain
Reproduction-
-sexual or asexual (spores, budding, binary fission)
-zygote is the only diploid cell, two nuclei do not fuse – they coexist (dikaryoitic stage, unique to fungi)
Examples-
-Penicillium
-Rhizopus (mold on breads, fruits and vegetables)
40xPhylum: Basidiomycota
-Most mushrooms, shelf fungi, and puffballs
-Most familiar, called “club fungi”
-account for almost a third of all identified fungi
-Fruiting bodies are visible
-Many are poisonous (genus Amanitas)
Example - Amanita Muscaria - hallucinogenic mushroom, often for drug-use
Phylum: Zygomycota
-Black bread mold
-Decomposes bread, fruits, vegetables, and decaying animals
-Produces a fuzzy, black growth on its substrate
-Form a zygospore as part of their sexual reproduction, but can reproduce asexually also
-Harmful if eaten!
Plantae
Plantae: otherwise known as plants...
-trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae
-scientific study of plants is called botany
-350,000 species of plants
Body plan-
-Multicellular with cell walls made of cellulose
Divergent event/evolution-
-There are claims that all plants evolved from a single type of algae that originally came from bacteria
-Evolved through endosymbiotic events between 2500 and 1000 million years ago
-Main difference is the cell wall and chloroplasts that allow plants to perform photosynthesis
Metabolism-
-Autotrophic – able to make their own source of energy (glucose) from the sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide (photosynthesis)
Digestion-
-Intracellular – use digestive enzymes to break down food
-Absorb nutrients from digested food
Circulation-
-Gases enter and exit plants through stomata in leaves
-Water and dissolved minerals enter plants through their roots from the soil
-Travel upward in the plant in xylem vessels
-Transpiration – evaporation of water from leaves
-Water column stays intact because of cohesion property of water
-Carbohydrates travel downward in phloem
-Water pressure forces substances from cell to cell
Respiration-
-Passive – releases energy that is captured and stored in plants
-Energy stored in the form of glucose is released for use in plant metabolism
-Glucose is broken down, releases carbon dioxide
-Glycolysis
-if oxygen is present, products will be used in mitochondria
-if oxygen is not present, fermentation occurs
-Light and dark reactions (photosynthesis)
-light reactions use light energy from the sun and water to produce ATP and NADPH
-dark reactions (Calvin Cycle) uses the ATP and NADPH from the light cycle and carbon dioxide to produce G3P that is used to produce sugars
Nervous-
-no brain, but DNA in the nucleus codes for proteins that allow all cell functions to occur properly
Reproduction-
-Asexual
-kalanchoe leaves perform mitosis at meristems along their leaf margins that produce little plants that fall off and can be independent
-rhizome underground stems arch over and take root at their tips, growing a new plant
-Sexual
-sporophytes, conifers (staminate and ovulate cones), flowers (pollination)
Examples-
-Rosaceae Rosa
-Pinaceae Pinus
Phylum: Bryophyta
-Non-vascular plants – cannot transport fluids through their bodies
-Must rely of surrounding moisture to do this job for them
-Lay foundations for other plant growth, prevent erosion, and contribute to green appearance of forests
-Reproduce by spores, never have flowers
-Grow low to the ground, on moist rocks, and on other plants
-Example - Moss
Phylum: Coniferophyta
-Reproduce from seeds instead of spores
-Seeds are “naked” – not covered by an ovary
-Seeds are produced in a cone-like structure called a conifer
-Never have flowers
-Have needle-, scale-, or awl-like leaves
-Grow in extreme conditions, can survive in extreme cold
Phylum: Anthophyta
-Flowering plants
-Class: Monocotyledonae
-Have an embryo with a single seed leaf
-Narrow leaves with parallel veins and smooth edges
-Hollow or soft stems
-Flowers are arranged in threes
-Example - Orchids
-Class: Dicotyledonae
-Presence of two seed leaves
-Broad leaves with net-like veins
-Example - Rhododendron catawbiense
Animalia
Animalia (Metazoa): otherwise known as animals...
Phylum: Chordata, Subphylum: Vertebrata
-50,000 species of animals
-Structure is composed of numerous tissues and organs
-Have vertebrae - hollow structures which combine to make the spinal column
-made of cartilage or bone and cartilage
-surrounds and protects the central nerve cord
Class: Myxini
-Live in deep water
-Feed on carrion (dead, rotting flesh) as well as polychaete worms
-Use tentacles around their mouths to locate prey
-Single nostril opens into pharynx
-Example- Hagfish
Class: Cephalspidomorphi
-Hatch/breed in fresh water, mature in marine
-Parasitic as adults - have a suction-like mouth that grasps onto other fish and puts a hole in their skin
-Have buccal glands that secret an anticoagulant to ensure free-flowing food source
-Larvae are called ammocoetes
-Example- Lamprey
Class: Chondrichthyes
-Paired nostrils
-Skeleton is completely cartilage - no endoskeletal bone
-No swim bladder
-Example- Stingray
Class: Osteichthyes
-Endoskeleton made up of bone
-Jaws and paired appendages
-Arose in freshwater, moved into saltwater
-Example- Ocean Sunfish
Class: Amphibia
-Ectothermic - regulates body temperature by moving to different climates within its environment (cold-blooded)
-Eggs must be laid in water or in a very moist environment
-young develop with gills and live in the water as tadpoles
-Example- Poison Dart Frog
Class: Reptilia
-Some of the first land-only vertebrates
-Ectothermic, heliotherms - can regulate body temperature using solar radiation
-Example- American Crocodile
Class: Aves
-Four-chambered heart
-Feathers
-Bill instead of teeth
-Endothermic - able to maintain a constant body temperate, regardless of its surroundings
-Example- Bald Eagle
Class: Mammalia
-Has hair/fur
-Mammary glands to give milk to young
-Endothermic
-Dental bones
-Example- Dogs (Yorkshire Terrier)
-Animalia cells do not contain cell walls that characterize plant cells
-Nine to 10 million species of animals
-THE most complex organisms on Earth
Body plan-
-ALL are multicellular
Divergent event-
-Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
-natural selection (survival of the fittest)
-Developed from the first organisms on Eath (bacteria)
-Grew more and more complex
-Related to fungi more than any other kingdom
-Only the ones who had the traits for their environment survived and moved on to reproduce
Metabolism-
-ALL are heterotrophs (obtain energy from or by consuming other organisms)
-ALL require oxygen for metabolism
Digestion-
-Intracellular – most have a digestive system
-consists of: mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver, small/large intestine, pancreas, colon, rectum
Circulation-
-Closed AND open
-Closed – blood closed at all times within vessels of different size and wall thickness, blood pumped by heart through vessels, does not fill body cavities
-Open – pumped by heart into body cavities where tissues are surrounded by blood
-pumps, three- and four-chamber hearts
Respiration-
-Gills – extracts dissolved oxygen from water
-fish, other aquatic animals
-Book lungs – look like books, maximize surface area with air/gas exchange
-arachnids
-Lungs – mouth, nose, oropharynx, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
-tetrapods, few fish, few snails
-two lungs on either side of heart in complex mammals (humans)
Nervous-
-Brain
-frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal lobes
-Nerve net
-simple nervous system found in cnidaria and echinodermata phyla
-Ganglia/ring
-found in insects such as the cockroach
Examples-
-Oryctolagus cuniculus (Rabbit)
-Chinchilla lanigera (Chinchilla)
Phylum: Nematoda
-80,000 known parasitic worms
-Bilaterally symmetrical
-Body cavity is pseudocoel (its body flied is under high pressure)
-No circulatory system
-Feed on everything
-Don't usually live in dry places
Example- Roundworm
Phylum: Mollusca
-110,000 known species
-Most diverse in the world
-Mantle with cavity used for breathing and excretion
-Has a pair of kidneys
-Most have a shell of some sort
-Pearls from oysters were among the earliest forms of money
Example- Snail
Phylum: Annelida
-15,000 individual segmented worms
-Body possesses three separate sections: a prosomium, a truck, and a pygidium
-Has a true closed circulatory system
-No true respiratory organs
Example- Common earthworm
Phylum: Chordata, Subphylum: Vertebrata
-50,000 species of animals
-Structure is composed of numerous tissues and organs
-Have vertebrae - hollow structures which combine to make the spinal column
-made of cartilage or bone and cartilage
-surrounds and protects the central nerve cord
Class: Myxini
-Live in deep water
-Feed on carrion (dead, rotting flesh) as well as polychaete worms
-Use tentacles around their mouths to locate prey
-Single nostril opens into pharynx
-Example- Hagfish
Class: Cephalspidomorphi
-Hatch/breed in fresh water, mature in marine
-Parasitic as adults - have a suction-like mouth that grasps onto other fish and puts a hole in their skin
-Have buccal glands that secret an anticoagulant to ensure free-flowing food source
-Larvae are called ammocoetes
-Example- Lamprey
Class: Chondrichthyes
-Paired nostrils
-Skeleton is completely cartilage - no endoskeletal bone
-No swim bladder
-Example- Stingray
Class: Osteichthyes
-Endoskeleton made up of bone
-Jaws and paired appendages
-Arose in freshwater, moved into saltwater
-Example- Ocean Sunfish
Class: Amphibia
-Ectothermic - regulates body temperature by moving to different climates within its environment (cold-blooded)
-Eggs must be laid in water or in a very moist environment
-young develop with gills and live in the water as tadpoles
-Example- Poison Dart Frog
Class: Reptilia
-Some of the first land-only vertebrates
-Ectothermic, heliotherms - can regulate body temperature using solar radiation
-Example- American Crocodile
Class: Aves
-Four-chambered heart
-Feathers
-Bill instead of teeth
-Endothermic - able to maintain a constant body temperate, regardless of its surroundings
-Example- Bald Eagle
Class: Mammalia
-Has hair/fur
-Mammary glands to give milk to young
-Endothermic
-Dental bones
-Example- Dogs (Yorkshire Terrier)
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